This is a video about things, like cars, phones, and light bulbs, and an actual conspiracy that made them worse. This video was sponsored by NordVPN. More about them at the end of the video. I am outside Livermore Fire Station number six. And in here, they have the longest continuously on light bulb in the world. It has been on for 120 years, since 1901. There it is, huh? Yeah, that's it. It's not even connected to a light switch, but it does have a backup battery and generator. So, the big question is, how has this light bulb lasted so long? It was manufactured by hand not long after commercial light bulbs were first invented. And yet, it has been running for over a million hours, way longer than any light bulb today is meant to last. A while back, a friend of mine told me this story, that someone had invented a light bulb that would last forever years ago, but they never sold it because an everlasting light bulb makes for a terrible business model. I mean, you would never have any repeat customers, and eventually, you would run out of people to sell light bulbs to. I thought this story sounded ridiculous. If you could make an everlasting light bulb, then everyone would buy your light bulb over the competitors. And so you could charge really high prices, make a lot of money, even if demand would eventually dry up. I just couldn't imagine that we had better light bulbs in the past, and then intentionally made them worse. But it turns out, I was wrong. At least, sort of. Inventing a viable electric light was hard. I mean, this is the typical incandescent design, which just involves passing electric current through a material, making it so hot that it glows. You know, less than 5% of the electrical energy comes out as light. The other 95% is released as heat. So, these are really heat bulbs which give off a little bit of light as a byproduct. You know, the temperature of the filament can get up to 2800 Kelvin. That is half as hot as the surface of the sun. At temperatures like those, most materials melt, and if they don't melt, they burn. Which is why in the 1840s, Warren De La Rue came up with the idea of putting the filament in a vacuum bulb, so there's no oxygen to react with. By 1879, Thomas Edison had made a bulb with a cotton thread filament that lasted 14 hours. Other inventors created bulbs with platinum filaments or other carbonized materials, and gradually the lifespan of bulbs increased. The filaments changed from carbon to tungsten, which has a very high melting point, and by the early 1920s, average bulb lifetimes were approaching 2000 hours, with some lasting 2500 hours. But this is when lifetimes stopped getting longer and started getting shorter. In Geneva, Switzerland, just before Christmas 1924, there was a secret meeting of top executives from the world's leading light bulb companies. Philips, International General Electric, Tokyo Electric, Osram from Germany, and the UK's Associated Electric, among others. They formed what became known as the Phoebus Cartel, named after Phoebus, the Greek God of Light. There, all these companies agreed to work together to help each other by controlling the world's supply of light bulbs. In the early days of the electrical industry, there had been lots of different small light bulb manufacturers, but by now, they had largely been consolidated into these big corporations, each dominant in a particular part of the world. The biggest threat they all faced was from longer lasting light bulbs. For example, in 1923, Osram sold 63 million light bulbs, but the following year, they sold only 28 million. Light bulbs were lasting too long, eating into sales. So, all the companies in the cartel agreed to reduce the lifespan of their bulbs to 1000 hours, cutting the existing average almost in half. But how could each company ensure that the other companies would actually follow the rules and make shorter lasting light bulbs? After all, it would be in each of their individual interests to make a better product to outsell the others. Well, to enforce the 1000-hour limit, each of the manufacturers had to send in sample bulbs from their factories, and they were tested on big test stands like this one. If a bulb lasted significantly longer than 1000 hours, well then the company was fined. If a bulb lasted longer than 3000 hours, well the fine was 200 Swiss francs for every 1000 bulbs sold. And there are records of these fines being issued to companies. But how do you make a worse light bulb in the first place? Well, the same engineers who had previously been tasked with extending the lifespan, now had to find ways to decrease it. So, they tried different materials, different shaped filaments, and thinner connections. And if you look at the data, they were successful. Ever since the formation of the cartel, the lifespan of light bulbs steadily decreased, so that by 1934, the average lifespan was just 1205 hours. And just as they had planned, sales increased for cartel members by 25% in the four years after 1926. And even though the cost of components came down, the cartel kept prices virtually unchanged, so they increased their profit margins. So, did people know that the light bulb companies were conspiring together to make their products worse? No. The Phoebus Cartel claimed that its purpose was to increase standardization and efficiency of light bulbs. I mean, they did establish this screw thread as standard, you can find it on virtually all light bulbs around the world now. But all evidence points to the cartel's being motivated by profits and increased sales, not by what was best for the consumer. In carefully crafting a light bulb with a relatively short life span, the cartel thus hatched the industrial strategy now known as planned obsolescence. So, one of the reasons this light bulb has lasted so long is because it was made before the cartel era. Another reason is because the filament has always been run at low power, just four or five watts. It was meant to be a night light for the fire station, to provide just enough light so that firemen wouldn't run into things at night. And the fact that it was always on reduced the thermal cycling of the filament and components, limiting the stress caused by thermal expansion and contraction. The Phoebus Cartel was initially planned to last at least until 1955, but it fell apart in the 1930s. It was already struggling due to outside competition and non-compliance amongst some of its members, but the outbreak of World War II is really what finished it off. So, this cartel was dead, but its methods survive to this day. There are lots of companies out there that intentionally shorten the lifespan of their products. It's a tactic known now as planned obsolescence. This was actually the subject of Casey Neistat's first viral video, all the way back in 2003. Thank you for calling Apple. My name's Ryan. May I have your first name, please? Casey. All right. What seems to be the issue today? I have an iPod that I bought about 18 months ago and and the battery is dead on it. Mhm. 18 months. Okay, it's past a year, which basically means for um it'll they'll be a charge of $255 plus a mailing fee to send it to us to re to refurbish. To correct it. But at that price, you know, you might as well go get a new one. This video got millions of views in a time before YouTube or social media, and it spawned a class action lawsuit, which Apple settled out of court. But it didn't stop the company from practicing planned obsolescence. After an iOS update in 2017, users of older iPhones found apps loading significantly slower or the device shutting down altogether. Apple said they throttled performance to protect the battery of older devices and increase their longevity. Of course, that wouldn't be an issue if the battery were replaceable. In a series of lawsuits that concluded in 2020, Apple was fined or reached settlements to pay hundreds of millions of dollars. Undoubtedly, this amount pales in comparison to the extra revenue they generate by limiting the lifespan of their products. But some would argue that planned obsolescence isn't just about greed, but that it's also good for everyone. During the Great Depression in the 1930s, when as much as a quarter of Americans were out of work, an American real estate broker, Bernard London, proposed mandatory planned obsolescence as a way to get people back to work and lift America out of the depression. He wrote, I would have the government assign a lease of life to shoes and homes and machines when they are first created, and they would be sold and used within the term of their existence, definitely known by the consumer. After the allotted time had expired, these things would be legally dead and would be controlled by the duly appointed governmental agency and destroyed if there is widespread unemployment. Now, this might sound like a wild fringe idea, but people were clearly afraid of being put out of work by technological progress and products that were too good. There was even a popular Oscar-nominated film about it. This is The Man in the White Suit from 1951. It's about a scientist who invents the perfect fiber. It won't stain or break or fray. I think I've succeeded in the copolymerization of amino acid residues and carbohydrate molecules, both containing ionic groups. It's really perfectly suitable. The Academy Award nomination was for best screenplay. I kid you not. Anyway, everyone is initially excited about our hero's scientific discovery. He makes a suit out of the thread, and it has to be white because the fiber is so stain resistant, it can't even be dyed. But this is when trouble strikes. The factory owners realize they won't be able to sell as much of this thread because it's so durable. And the workers worry it'll put them out of a job. Why can't you scientists leave things alone? What about my bit of washing? When there's no washing to do? This is when you get the climactic scene where factory workers and factory owners team up to chase down the scientist to destroy him and his invention. And believe it or not, this movie may have been inspired by real events. In the 1940s, the synthetic fiber nylon replaced silk in stockings. And it was so durable that the products became an overnight sensation. There were literal riots when women tried to get their hands on them. When the manufacturers realized they had made the product too good, they didn't destroy the fiber, but they did follow the example of the Phoebus Cartel. They instructed their engineers and scientists to find ways to weaken the product, to shorten its lifespan, so people would have to buy more. Now, it seems like consumers are finally fighting back against planned obsolescence. In the European Union, and in over 25 states in the US, there's proposed legislation to enshrine the right to repair. Now, these laws would force manufacturers to make it easier to repair their products. They would have to provide information and access to parts, so you could replace a battery or fix a cracked screen at a third-party repair shop without voiding your warranty. So, if the right to repair does become law, does that mean artificial obsolescence will be gone for good? Sadly, no. Because there is one last thing manufacturers can use to make their products obsolete, which is you. Henry Ford released the first mass-market car, the Model T, in 1908. And he envisioned it like a workhorse, an affordable tool that wouldn't wear out, a bit like the everlasting light bulb. In 1922, Ford said, we want the man who buys one of our cars never to have to buy another. We never make an improvement that renders any previous model obsolete. But by 1920, 55% of American families already owned a car. Nearly everyone that could afford one had one. And that same year, there was a small economic downturn, driving down sales for both Ford and General Motors. In 1921, DuPont, the chemical and paint company, took over the controlling share in General Motors. And they started experimenting with painting cars different colors. Up until then, Henry Ford had said, you could have whatever color you like, so long as it's black. It took a couple years of testing, but in 1924, GM released their first cars in different colors. And soon after, they introduced a trick that feels very familiar now. Each new year, they would introduce cars in different colors. The goal wasn't just to make Ford's Model T look outdated, but to make their own cars feel outdated every year, encouraging customers to trade in their old cars for shiny new ones. Years later, GM's head of design, Harley Earl, candidly discussed his role in creating what he called dynamic obsolescence. "Our big job is to hasten obsolescence." In 1934, the average car ownership span was 5 years. Now [1955], it is 2 years. When it is 1 year, we will have a perfect score. By the time he said this, General Motors was the most valuable company in the world, and it sold half of all vehicles purchased in the US every year. These days, the world's most valuable company, Apple, seems to have copied directly out of this playbook. I mean, new styles every year, check. New special colors every year, check. Marginal technological improvement, check. I mean, is this useful innovation or just a gimmick? The inspiration for General Motors, and hence for Apple, comes from fashion, where real innovation is all but impossible. So, the only way to make people feel the urgency to get out there and buy is to create styles that last but one season. The trouble then is, you run through these styles too quickly, and then what are you supposed to do? Well, just recycle the styles from a few decades ago. The iPhone also shows this recycling trend. I mean, just look at the way the edges were initially rounded, and then they were squared off, and then they were rounded again, and now they're squared off. And how much do you want to bet that the iPhone 14 has rounded edges? I think the point is that with design and styling, there is no best. There's only different, which is apparently enough to remind us that we don't have the latest and greatest, and so we have to rush out and keep buying. The only type of obsolescence we should support is technological, which brings us back to the light bulb. You know, in the last 20 years, light bulbs have gone from incandescent, which was basically unchanged for 100 years, to compact fluorescent, and now to LED. These use just a tenth the energy and can last anywhere from 10 to 50 times longer. Yeah, that's pretty bright. So, you're more likely to sell your house than to have to replace an LED bulb that you've installed inside it. So, we've finally reached the point of what is essentially an everlasting light bulb. Hey, this video was sponsored by NordVPN. You know, I am featured in an episode of the British TV program QI. It's a show I really like, and I'd highly recommend it if you haven't seen it already. And it's on Netflix, but only if you're in the UK. I feel like TV and film are still trapped in antiquated business models where they divide up the world into broadcast territories. That doesn't make a lot of sense now that information can flow freely through the internet. Luckily, using NordVPN, anyone can set their location to the UK and watch whatever they like. If you're interested in seeing what streamers have to offer in different countries, you can get a huge discount on a two-year plan at nordvpn.com/veritasium. Use code Veritasium to get an extra month free. And using NordVPN, you can also protect your privacy by masking your IP address. In fact, you can change your IP twice to cover your web traffic with an extra layer of security. NordVPN has a no-logs policy. They don't track, collect, or share your private data, which is what a lot of the world's biggest companies are trying to do right now. So, for privacy when browsing and access to all the shows the world has to offer, go to nordvpn.com/veritasium for a huge discount off a two-year plan. And use code Veritasium to get one additional month free. And this is all risk-free with Nord's 30-day money-back guarantee. So, I want to thank NordVPN for sponsoring Veritasium, and I want to thank you for watching.
The video opens with a time-lapse shot of two people setting up a large metal structure adorned with numerous small, glowing incandescent light bulbs. The lighting is initially dim, then brightens to reveal the full setup. The scene then cuts to a close-up of hands interacting with a modern smartphone, followed by an extreme close-up of an incandescent light bulb filament glowing. Subsequent quick cuts show five men in vintage attire descending stone steps, the light bulb filament glowing and then shattering, and finally an aerial shot of a suburban landscape with a building in the foreground.
"This is a video about things, like cars, phones, and light bulbs, and an actual conspiracy that made them worse."
The aerial shot of the suburban landscape continues. A semi-transparent grey circle with a black mountain icon and the text 'NordVPN' appears in the center of the screen, along with the website 'NordVPN.com/veritasium'. The logo and text then fade out.
"This video was sponsored by NordVPN. More about them at the end of the video."
A man with short dark hair and a neatly trimmed beard, wearing a black blazer over a light blue collared shirt with a white N95 mask hanging around his neck, smiles and gestures towards the camera. He is standing outside, with a beige building and trees in the background under a clear blue sky. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a rustic wooden sign that reads "Livermore Pleasanton Fire Department Station 6". This is followed by an aerial shot of the fire station, a single-story building with three garage doors, surrounded by trees and a parking lot. The camera slowly zooms in on the roof of the fire station.
"I am outside Livermore Fire Station number six. And in here, they have the longest continuously on light bulb in the world."
The camera continues to zoom in on the fire station roof, then cuts to the man from before, now inside the fire station, wearing a black mask over his mouth and nose. He gestures with his right hand towards a dark corner of the station, where a red fire truck is partially visible. A red arrow appears on screen, pointing to the light bulb. The camera then pans to the left, revealing more of the fire truck and the interior of the station, with shelves and framed items on the wall. The camera then cuts to a close-up of a single, glowing incandescent light bulb hanging from the ceiling, surrounded by exposed pipes and a security camera.
"It has been on for 120 years, since 1901. There it is, huh? Yeah, that's it."
The incandescent light bulb continues to glow, suspended from the ceiling. The camera then cuts to a shot inside the fire station, where a man in a blue uniform is seen climbing a ladder on the side of a red fire truck. Another man in a blue uniform is standing on the ground, looking up. The scene then transitions to a shot of the same man in the blue uniform, now aiming a long camera lens at the light bulb from a distance. The light bulb is still glowing, and a security camera is visible nearby.
"It's not even connected to a light switch. But it does have a backup battery and generator."
A close-up shot of the glowing incandescent light bulb is shown. The filament inside forms a heart-like shape. The camera slowly zooms in on the bulb, highlighting its intricate design and the warm light it emits. A security camera is visible in the background, slightly out of focus.
"So, the big question is, how has this light bulb lasted so long? It was manufactured by hand not long after commercial light bulbs were first invented."
The close-up shot of the glowing incandescent light bulb continues, with the filament still forming a heart-like shape. The camera remains static, emphasizing the continuous glow of the bulb. The security camera in the background is still visible.
"In yet, it has been running for over a million hours, way longer than any light bulb today is meant to last."
The man from the beginning of the video, wearing a dark grey t-shirt and a black smartwatch on his left wrist, stands centered in front of a wall of glowing light bulbs. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, explaining the story of the everlasting light bulb. The light bulbs behind him are arranged in shelves, creating a warm, illuminated background. His expression is engaging and thoughtful.
"A while back, a friend of mine told me this story, that someone had invented a light bulb that would last forever, years ago, but they never sold it because an everlasting light bulb makes for a terrible business model. I mean, you would never have any repeat customers, and eventually, you would run out of people to sell light bulbs to."
The man continues to speak, gesturing with his hands. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs reflecting in a mirrored surface behind him. His expression shifts from skepticism to a hint of surprise as he reveals his change of mind.
"I thought this story sounded ridiculous. If you could make an everlasting light bulb, then everyone would buy your light bulb over the competitors. And so you could charge really high prices, make a lot of money, even if demand would eventually dry up. I just couldn't imagine that we had better light bulbs in the past, and then intentionally made them worse. But it turns out, I was wrong. At least, sort of."
The man gestures towards a long, cylindrical light bulb in the foreground, surrounded by other glowing incandescent bulbs. He points to the filament inside the cylindrical bulb as he explains the incandescent design. The background is filled with more glowing bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, industrial aesthetic.
"Inventing a viable electric light was hard. I mean, this is the typical incandescent design, which just involves passing electric current through a material, making it so hot that it glows."
The man continues to gesture towards the cylindrical light bulb, emphasizing his points with hand movements. He then points to the filament, highlighting the energy conversion. The background remains consistent, with numerous glowing bulbs and intricate wiring.
"You know, less than 5% of the electrical energy comes out as light. The other 95% is released as heat. So, these are really heat bulbs which give off a little bit of light as a byproduct."
The man points to the cylindrical light bulb as he speaks. The text "2800K" appears on the screen, emphasizing the high temperature of the filament. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a scientific experiment where a bright, glowing filament is suspended between two electrodes, emitting sparks and heat. A person is visible in the background, out of focus. The scene then cuts back to the man, who continues to gesture towards the cylindrical light bulb.
"You know, the temperature of the filament can get up to 2800 Kelvin. That is half as hot as the surface of the sun."
The scientific experiment continues, showing the glowing filament and sparks. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a small, thin filament glowing brightly, with smoke rising from it. The background is blurred with bokeh lights. The scene then cuts to a close-up of an incandescent light bulb, initially glowing brightly, then gradually dimming until the filament is no longer visible. The bulb is set against a black background.
"At temperatures like those, most materials melt, and if they don't melt, they burn. Which is why in the 1840s, Warren De La Rue came up with the idea of putting the filament in a vacuum bulb, so there's no oxygen to react with."
An animated diagram on a beige background illustrates the evolution of light bulbs. It starts with a simple outline of a light bulb, labeled "1879", with a cotton thread filament that lasts "14 Hrs". The diagram then shows a graph with "Average Lifespan (hrs)" on the Y-axis and years from 1880 to 1930 on the X-axis. A line graph shows the lifespan increasing over time, with markers indicating different bulb designs and their lifespans: 500 hours in 1880, 750 hours in 1900, and 1800 hours in 1920, with a shaded area indicating a range up to 2500 hours. The diagram highlights the transition from carbon to tungsten filaments.
"By 1879, Thomas Edison had made a bulb with a cotton thread filament that lasted 14 hours. Other inventors created bulbs with platinum filaments or other carbonized materials, and gradually the lifespan of bulbs increased. The filaments changed from carbon to tungsten, which has a very high melting point, and by the early 1920s, average bulb lifetimes were approaching 2000 hours, with some lasting 2500 hours."
The animated graph continues, showing the average lifespan of light bulbs increasing to 1800 hours by 1920, with some lasting up to 2500 hours. The graph then shows the trend reversing, with lifetimes starting to get shorter. The shaded area representing the lifespan range also begins to narrow. The background remains a light beige.
"But this is when lifetimes stopped getting longer and started getting shorter."
A black and white aerial shot shows a wide river with a bridge spanning it, leading to a city with many buildings. Cars and people are visible on the bridge and along the riverbanks. The scene then cuts to a map of the world, with the logos of Philips, International General Electric, Tokyo Electric, Osram, and AEI appearing on their respective continents. The logos then converge in the center of the map, forming a rectangular box with the text "Phoebus Cartel" inside.
"In Geneva, Switzerland, just before Christmas 1924, there was a secret meeting of top executives from the world's leading light bulb companies."
The scene transitions to a close-up of numerous glowing incandescent light bulbs arranged on shelves, with tangled wires connecting them. The camera slowly pans upwards, revealing more rows of bulbs, creating a mesmerizing pattern of light and shadow. The background is dark, emphasizing the glowing bulbs.
"Named after Phoebus, the Greek God of Light. There, all these companies agreed to work together to help each other by controlling the world's supply of light bulbs."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a factory, carefully inspecting a row of incandescent light bulbs. The background is filled with industrial machinery and other workers. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a complex machine, with numerous gears and levers, actively manufacturing light bulbs. The bulbs move along a conveyor belt, glowing as they are processed. The camera follows the movement of the bulbs, highlighting the intricate process of mass production.
"In the early days of the electrical industry, there had been lots of different small light bulb manufacturers, but by now, they had largely been consolidated into these big corporations, each dominant in a particular part of the world."
The black and white archival footage continues, showing the intricate process of light bulb manufacturing. The camera focuses on the individual bulbs as they move along the conveyor belt, being processed by the machinery. The scene then transitions to an animated graph on a beige background, similar to the previous one. This graph shows "Sales (millions)" on the Y-axis and years from 1923 to 1924 on the X-axis. A line graph illustrates Osram's sales, dropping from 63 million in 1923 to 28 million in 1924.
"The biggest threat they all faced was from longer lasting light bulbs. For example, in 1923, Osram sold 63 million light bulbs, but the following year, they sold only 28 million."
A black and white archival footage shows a glowing light bulb lying horizontally on a surface. A hammer strikes the bulb, causing it to shatter into many pieces. The text "1000 hours" appears on the screen, emphasizing the reduced lifespan. The shattered bulb continues to glow amidst the broken glass.
"Light bulbs were lasting too long, eating into sales. So, all the companies in the cartel agreed to reduce the lifespan of their bulbs to 1000 hours, cutting the existing average almost in half."
A black and white archival footage shows several men in suits and a woman in a dress gathered around a large, spherical machine. One man is holding a small object, possibly a light bulb, up to the machine. The camera then cuts to the man from the beginning of the video, now wearing a white lab coat, standing in front of the wall of light bulbs. He holds a small, clear cylindrical object in his right hand and gestures with his left, explaining the cartel's enforcement mechanisms.
"But how could each company ensure that the other companies would actually follow the rules and make shorter lasting light bulbs? After all, it would be in each of their individual interests to make a better product to outsell the others."
A colorized archival footage shows rows of light bulbs moving along a conveyor belt in a factory. The bulbs are of various shapes and sizes, and some are glowing. The camera focuses on a section of the conveyor belt, showing the bulbs being processed. The scene then cuts to a close-up of many white, round light bulbs arranged in a grid, with some showing patterns of wear or damage. The camera slowly pans across the grid.
"Well, to enforce the 1000-hour limit, each of the manufacturers had to send in sample bulbs from their factories, and they were tested on big test stands like this one."
The man in the white lab coat stands in front of the wall of light bulbs, holding a black tablet in his left hand and pointing to a cylindrical light bulb with his right. He looks up at the bulbs as he explains the testing process. The scene then cuts to a close-up of the man, still in the lab coat, gesturing with his hands as he speaks. The background is filled with the glowing light bulbs.
"If a bulb lasted significantly longer than 1000 hours, well then the company was fined."
An animated bar graph on a beige background illustrates the fines imposed by the Phoebus Cartel. The X-axis represents "Average Lifespan (Hrs)" with intervals from 0 to 3000 hours, and the Y-axis represents "Fine per 1,000 bulbs sold (Swiss Francs)" with intervals up to 200. Bars appear, showing fines for bulbs lasting longer than 1750 hours, with increasing fines for longer lifespans, reaching 200 Swiss Francs for bulbs lasting over 3000 hours. The background remains a light beige.
"If a bulb lasted longer than 3000 hours, well the fine was 200 Swiss francs for every 1000 bulbs sold. And there are records of these fines being issued to companies."
The man in the white lab coat is shown in front of the wall of light bulbs, holding a clear cylindrical object and gesturing as he speaks. He then reaches up and removes one of the cylindrical light bulbs from the shelf. The scene cuts to the man, now in a dark grey t-shirt, sitting cross-legged on the floor in front of the light bulb wall. He holds a small, clear light bulb in his right hand and gestures with his left, explaining how manufacturers intentionally shortened the lifespan of bulbs. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires.
"But how do you make a worse light bulb in the first place? Well, the same engineers who had previously been tasked with extending the lifespan, now had to find ways to decrease it."
A close-up shot of an incandescent light bulb with a spiral filament glowing brightly is shown. The background is blurred with bokeh lights from other bulbs. The camera slowly zooms in on the spiral filament, highlighting its intricate design. The scene then transitions to an animated graph on a beige background. The graph shows "Average Lifespan (Hrs)" on the left Y-axis and "Sales (millions USD)" on the right Y-axis, with years from 1924 to 1934 on the X-axis. A vertical line marks "Phoebus Cartel" in 1925. The graph shows the average lifespan of light bulbs steadily decreasing from 1750 hours in 1925 to 1205 hours in 1934, with a shaded area indicating a range of lifespans.
"So, they tried different materials, different shaped filaments, and thinner connections. And if you look at the data, they were successful."
The animated graph continues to show the decreasing lifespan of light bulbs and the increasing sales for cartel members. A blue line representing sales shows an increase from 350 million USD in 1926 to over 400 million USD in 1934. The background remains a light beige. The scene then cuts to a close-up shot of a cylindrical light bulb, with its filament glowing brightly. The camera slowly zooms in on the filament, highlighting its intricate design. The background is blurred with bokeh lights from other bulbs.
"Ever since the formation of the cartel, the lifespan of light bulbs steadily decreased, so that by 1934, the average lifespan was just 1205 hours. And just as they had planned, sales increased for cartel members by 25% in the four years after 1926. And even though the cost of components came down, the cartel kept prices virtually unchanged, so they increased their profit margins."
The man, in a dark grey t-shirt, is sitting cross-legged on the floor in front of the light bulb wall. He holds a small, clear light bulb in his right hand and gestures with both hands as he speaks, explaining the cartel's deceptive claims. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"So, did people know that the light bulb companies were conspiring together to make their products worse? No. The Phoebus Cartel claimed that its purpose was to increase standardization and efficiency of light bulbs. I mean, they did establish this screw thread as standard, you can find it on virtually all light bulbs around the world now."
A screenshot of an article titled "Circling the Globe" from IEEE Spectrum is displayed. The article discusses the Phoebus Cartel and its impact on the light bulb market. A yellow highlight appears over the sentence: "Indeed, all evidence points to the cartel's being motivated by profits and increased sales, not by what was best for the consumer." The article is set against a white background, with other related articles and a 'Suggested Wiley-IEEE Reading' section visible on the right.
"But all evidence points to the cartel's being motivated by profits and increased sales, not by what was best for the consumer. In carefully crafting a light bulb with a relatively short life span, the cartel thus hatched the industrial strategy now known as planned obsolescence."
A close-up shot of the glowing incandescent light bulb from the fire station is shown, hanging from the ceiling. Exposed pipes and a security camera are visible in the background. The camera slowly zooms in on the bulb, highlighting its continuous glow. The scene then cuts to a close-up of the same light bulb, emphasizing its unique heart-like filament. The background is a blurred, light grey wall.
"So, one of the reasons this light bulb has lasted so long is because it was made before the cartel era."
A close-up shot of the glowing incandescent light bulb continues. The camera then cuts to a man in a blue uniform and a black mask, standing in front of two large red fire trucks inside the station. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, explaining the purpose of the light bulb. The fire trucks are prominently displayed, with their shiny chrome details and red exteriors. The scene then cuts back to the close-up of the light bulb, still glowing steadily.
"Another reason is because the filament has always been run at low power, just four or five watts. It was meant to be a night light for the fire station, to provide just enough light so that firemen wouldn't run into things at night."
The light bulb continues to glow, suspended from the ceiling. The camera slowly pans downwards, then upwards, emphasizing the continuous glow of the bulb. Exposed pipes and a security camera are visible in the background, slightly out of focus.
"And the fact that it was always on reduced the thermal cycling of the filament and components, limiting the stress caused by thermal expansion and contraction."
The man, in a dark grey t-shirt, is sitting cross-legged on the floor in front of the light bulb wall. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, explaining the cartel's eventual downfall. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"The Phoebus Cartel was initially planned to last at least until 1955, but it fell apart in the 1930s. It was already struggling due to outside competition and non-compliance amongst some of its members, but the outbreak of World War II is really what finished it off. So, this cartel was dead, but its methods survive to this day."
The man continues to speak, gesturing with his hands. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs reflecting in a mirrored surface behind him. His expression is serious as he discusses planned obsolescence.
"There are lots of companies out there that intentionally shorten the lifespan of their products. It's a tactic known now as planned obsolescence."
A hand holds a switchblade knife, flicking it open and closed over a green and white package. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a hand writing "Casey Neistat" in red marker on the label of a black VHS tape. The scene then transitions to a black screen with the white text "iPod's Dirty Secret" in the center. The text fades out.
"This was actually the subject of Casey Neistat's first viral video, all the way back in 2003."
A hand uses a sharp tool to carve out the letters "DEF" from a piece of cardboard, revealing a wooden surface underneath. The scene then cuts to a man with curly brown hair, wearing a black puffer jacket with red accents, pushing open the lid of a large green dumpster on a city street. He looks around with a frustrated expression, then climbs onto the dumpster, holding a small, rectangular object. He then throws the object into the dumpster. The background features a brick building with numerous posters plastered on its wall, and a black car is partially visible on the left.
"Thank you for calling Apple. My name's Ryan. May I have your first name, please? Casey. All right. What seems to be the issue today? I have an iPod that I bought about 18 months ago and and the battery is dead on it. Mhm. 18 months. Okay, it's past a year, which basically means for um it'll they'll be a charge of $255 plus a mailing fee to send it to us to re to refurbish. To correct it. But at that price, you know, you might as well go get a new one."
The man from the previous scene, still in the black puffer jacket, is shown on a city street, spray-painting a large poster on a wall. He then steps back to reveal the text "iPod's Unreplaceable Battery Lasts Only 18 Months." written over the poster. The scene then cuts to a close-up of two hands holding two white iPhones, both displaying the time 7:35 and the date September 19. The hands interact with the screens, scrolling through content. The background is a blurred concrete sidewalk.
"This video got millions of views in a time before YouTube or social media, and it spawned a class action lawsuit, which Apple settled out of court."
A close-up of two hands holding two white iPhones is shown, with both screens displaying the time 7:35 and the date September 19. The hands interact with the screens, scrolling through content. The background is a blurred concrete sidewalk. The scene then cuts to a group of hands holding various smartphones, some white, some black, all with dark screens. The hands are positioned in a circle, with a microphone from 'PIX11 News' visible in the bottom right corner. The scene then cuts to a man sitting at a desk covered with disassembled iPhones, their internal components exposed. He is holding a small phone part and looking at a laptop. Another person is partially visible on the left.
"But it didn't stop the company from practicing planned obsolescence. After an iOS update in 2017, users of older iPhones found apps loading significantly slower or the device shutting down altogether."
A close-up shot of hands using a soldering iron to work on the intricate internal components of a smartphone. Small screws and wires are scattered around the device on a teal mat. The scene then cuts to a series of screenshots of news articles with headlines related to Apple's "batterygate" scandal. The headlines include "Apple hit with another lawsuit over iPhone batterygate, seeking $73 million in damages for users," "You can now stake your claim in Apple's $500 million iPhone slowdown settlement," "Batterygate: When Will iPhone Owners Get Their Money?" and "Apple to pay $113 million to settle state investigation into iPhone 'batterygate'." The articles feature images of iPhones and businesspeople.
"Of course, that wouldn't be an issue if the battery were replaceable."
A group of Apple store employees in blue shirts cheer and clap as they open large glass doors, revealing a crowd of customers waiting outside. The customers, carrying bags and backpacks, eagerly enter the store, which is brightly lit and features a modern, minimalist design. The employees continue to cheer and high-five the customers as they enter.
"In a series of lawsuits that concluded in 2020, Apple was fined or reached settlements to pay hundreds of millions of dollars. Undoubtedly, this amount pales in comparison to the extra revenue they generate by limiting the lifespan of their products."
A pile of old, discarded computer towers and monitors is shown, stacked against a wall. The computers are of various models and colors, some with their internal components exposed. The camera slowly pans across the pile, highlighting the sheer volume of electronic waste.
"But some would argue that planned obsolescence isn't just about greed, but that it's also good for everyone."
A black and white archival footage shows a newspaper headline reading "STOCKS COLLAPSE IN 16,410,030-SHARE DAY BUT RALLY AT CLOSE CHEERS BROKERS BANKERS OPTIMISTIC, TO CONTINUE AID." The year "1929" is superimposed over the headline. The scene then cuts to a series of images depicting the Great Depression: tall industrial smokestacks, a "CLOSED" sign on a fence, a "NO MEN WANTED" sign, and men sitting dejectedly on a bench. The images are overlaid with text from Bernard London's proposal for mandatory planned obsolescence.
"During the Great Depression in the 1930s, when as much as a quarter of Americans were out of work, an American real estate broker, Bernard London, proposed mandatory planned obsolescence as a way to get people back to work and lift America out of the depression. He wrote, I would have the government assign a lease of life to shoes and homes and machines when they are first created. And they would be sold and used within the term of their existence, definitely known by the consumer."
A black and white archival footage shows a bustling street market, with people in hats and coats browsing various stalls. A man in a suit and hat is seen looking at a job board filled with handwritten notices. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a newspaper with classified ads, then back to the street market, where people are interacting with vendors and pushing carts. The camera follows a cart being pushed through the crowded market.
"After the allotted time had expired, these things would be legally dead and would be controlled by the duly appointed governmental agency and destroyed if there is widespread unemployment."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a coat and hat opening a large wooden gate, revealing a brick building with signs that read "FOR SALE" and "HENRY BUTCHER." The camera then cuts to an industrial structure with large metal wheels and intricate framework, possibly a mining headframe. The camera pans down, revealing more of the structure and surrounding buildings. The scene then cuts to a man in a lab coat, working with various beakers, tubes, and scientific equipment in a laboratory. He is focused on his work, adjusting the apparatus.
"Now, this might sound like a wild fringe idea, but people were clearly afraid of being put out of work by technological progress and products that were too good."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a lab coat, working with various beakers, tubes, and scientific equipment in a laboratory. The title "The Man in the White Suit (1951)" appears on the screen. The man then holds up a flask with a white substance, examining it intently. The scene then cuts to a man and a woman, both in period attire, engaged in a conversation. The man is speaking with an animated expression, while the woman listens attentively. The background is a dark, brick wall.
"There was even a popular Oscar-nominated film about it. This is The Man in the White Suit from 1951. It's about a scientist who invents the perfect fiber. It won't stain or break or fray."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a lab coat and a sweater vest standing in a laboratory, looking around. Another man is visible in the background, working at a bench. The scene then cuts to a man in a suit walking into a room, looking over his shoulder. He then turns to face the camera, with a serious expression. The scene then cuts back to the man in the lab coat, who smiles and gestures as he speaks. The background is a wooden door with glass panels.
"It's really perfectly suitable. The Academy Award nomination was for best screenplay. I kid you not."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a lab coat and a sweater vest, smoking a cigarette and gesturing. Another man in a suit enters the room, and they both smile. The scene then cuts to a man in a suit and tie, holding up a white lab coat and putting it on. He then stands in front of a mirror, admiring his reflection. The scene then cuts to a man in a white suit, standing in front of multiple mirrors, with his reflections visible. He then looks around with a concerned expression.
"Anyway, everyone is initially excited about our hero's scientific discovery. He makes a suit out of the thread, and it has to be white because the fiber is so stain resistant, it can't even be dyed. But this is when trouble strikes."
A black and white archival footage shows a man in a white suit, looking at his reflections in multiple mirrors. He then looks around with a concerned expression. The scene then cuts to a close-up of a newspaper headline that reads "EVERLASTING THREAD MILL TOWN, then Scenes follow rumors, boss promises statement." The headline is set against a backdrop of blurred text. The scene then cuts to an elderly woman wrapped in a blanket, looking at a man in a white lab coat with a worried expression. She is holding a pile of folded blankets. The scene then cuts to a close-up of the man's worried face.
"The factory owners realize they won't be able to sell as much of this thread because it's so durable. And the workers worry it'll put them out of a job."
A black and white archival footage shows a group of men in coats and hats walking down a dark street at night. A vintage car is parked on the left. The camera then cuts to a man in a cap running down the street, followed by a group of men and women, some carrying bottles. They are all looking intently in the same direction. The camera then cuts to a close-up of the man in the white lab coat, looking worried. The scene then cuts to a group of men in caps and coats, looking determined. The camera then cuts to an animated cartoon of a scientist in a lab coat, holding a green test tube and laughing maniacally. He then holds up a woman's leg, still laughing. The scene then cuts to a group of women in a store, eagerly reaching for nylon stockings. A cashier is handing out the stockings, and the women are pushing and shoving to get them.
"This is when you get the climactic scene where factory workers and factory owners team up to chase down the scientist to destroy him and his invention."
A black and white archival footage shows a group of women in a store, eagerly reaching for nylon stockings. A cashier is handing out the stockings, and the women are pushing and shoving to get them. The scene then cuts to a man in a white shirt, working with rows of spools of thread in a factory. The camera then cuts to a wide shot of a factory floor, with many workers operating machinery. The camera then cuts to a woman in a lab coat, standing next to a machine that is testing the durability of shoes. She gestures towards the machine as it operates.
"When the manufacturers realized they had made the product too good, they didn't destroy the fiber, but they did follow the example of the Phoebus Cartel. They instructed their engineers and scientists to find ways to weaken the product, to shorten its lifespan, so people would have to buy more."
A black and white archival footage shows a woman in a lab coat, standing next to a machine that is testing the durability of shoes. The machine is actively moving, simulating wear and tear on the shoes. The scene then cuts to the man, in a dark grey t-shirt, standing in front of the wall of light bulbs. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, discussing the rise of the "right to repair" movement. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"Now, it seems like consumers are finally fighting back against planned obsolescence. In the European Union, and in over 25 states in the US, there's proposed legislation to enshrine the right to repair."
A close-up shot of a person's legs and feet standing next to a cart filled with old flip phones. The phones are of various models and colors, some open, some closed. The camera then cuts to a close-up of a person's hands wearing blue gloves, using a power tool to tighten a bolt on the underside of a car. The exhaust pipe and other car components are visible. The scene then cuts to a table covered with disassembled smartphones, their internal components exposed. A battery charging device is connected to one of the phones, displaying a digital readout. Several tools and small parts are scattered around the table.
"Now, these laws would force manufacturers to make it easier to repair their products. They would have to provide information and access to parts, so you could replace a battery or fix a cracked screen at a third-party repair shop without voiding your warranty."
A screenshot of a Wall Street Journal article titled "It Shouldn't Cost the Farm to Fix a Tractor" is displayed, featuring an image of a Mars rover on a dusty, rocky surface. The article discusses the challenges of repairing modern machinery due to proprietary software. The scene then cuts to the man, in a dark grey t-shirt, standing in front of the wall of light bulbs. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, expressing skepticism about the complete eradication of planned obsolescence. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"So, if the right to repair does become law, does that mean artificial obsolescence will be gone for good? Sadly, no."
The man continues to speak, gesturing with his hands. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs reflecting in a mirrored surface behind him. His expression is serious as he delivers the final point.
"Because there is one last thing manufacturers can use to make their products obsolete, which is you."
A black and white archival footage shows a vintage car driving down a dusty road, kicking up a cloud of dust. The car is a Model T, with its distinctive tall, boxy shape. The scene then cuts to the car driving down a steep incline, then back up, demonstrating its durability. The camera then cuts to the car driving through a shallow river, splashing water as it goes. The scene then cuts to the car driving through deep snow, with tall banks of snow on either side. The car is moving slowly but steadily, highlighting its ability to handle challenging terrain.
"Henry Ford released the first mass-market car, the Model T, in 1908. And he envisioned it like a workhorse, an affordable tool that wouldn't wear out, a bit like the everlasting light bulb. In 1922, Ford said, we want the man who buys one of our cars never to have to buy another. We never make an improvement that renders any previous model obsolete."
A black and white archival footage shows a busy city street filled with vintage cars, all driving in the same direction. People are visible on the sidewalks, and tall buildings line the street. The camera then cuts to a close-up of a large industrial machine, with gears and belts moving. The scene then cuts to rows of empty train cars, lined up on tracks. The camera then cuts to a group of men in coats and hats, walking along a train track, carrying lunch pails. The scene then cuts to an industrial structure with large metal wheels and intricate framework, possibly a mining headframe. The camera pans down, revealing more of the structure and surrounding buildings.
"But by 1920, 55% of American families already owned a car. Nearly everyone that could afford one had one. And that same year, there was a small economic downturn, driving down sales for both Ford and General Motors."
A black and white archival footage shows an industrial structure with large metal wheels and intricate framework, possibly a mining headframe. The camera pans down, revealing more of the structure and surrounding buildings. The scene then cuts to a colorful animated logo of "DU PONT" in an oval shape, with a gradient of pink, purple, and green. The logo is set against a blue background. The scene then cuts to a modern factory setting, with large white storage tanks and several trucks, some carrying large white tanks, driving through a gate. A sign above the gate reads "FINISHES DU PONT DIVISION."
"In 1921, DuPont, the chemical and paint company, took over the controlling share in General Motors."
A colorful archival footage shows a bustling city street with vintage cars of various colors driving and parked. Buildings with shops and apartments line the street. The scene then cuts to a black and white archival footage of a factory setting, with several Model T cars, all black, parked and being moved around. Workers are visible in the background. The camera then cuts to a man in a white jumpsuit, spray-painting a car part with a reddish-purple color. He is carefully masking off certain areas before painting. The background is dark, highlighting the car part and the painting process.
"And they started experimenting with painting cars different colors. Up until then, Henry Ford had said, you could have whatever color you like, so long as it's black."
A man in a white jumpsuit is spray-painting a car part with a reddish-purple color, carefully masking off certain areas. The scene then cuts to a colorful archival footage of a factory assembly line, with several cars in various stages of production. Workers are seen tending to the cars, which are painted in different colors, including a teal green. The scene then cuts to two vintage cars, one white and teal, the other purple, parked in a studio with a vibrant orange background. The camera slowly pans across the front of the white and teal car, highlighting its design and color.
"It took a couple years of testing, but in 1924, GM released their first cars in different colors. And soon after, they introduced a trick that feels very familiar now."
Two vintage cars, one white and teal, the other purple, are parked in a studio with a vibrant orange background. The camera slowly pans across the front of the white and teal car, highlighting its design and color. The scene then cuts to a close-up of the purple car, then to another vintage car, light blue with white trim, slowly moving into view. The camera focuses on the front of the car, showcasing its design and color. The background is a vibrant orange.
"Each new year, they would introduce cars in different colors."
A light blue vintage car with white trim slowly moves into view, with the camera focusing on its front. The background is a vibrant orange. The scene then cuts to a black and white archival footage of a car crashing into a large, round object, causing an explosion of debris. The scene then cuts to a white car driving along a beach, with the ocean in the background. The car then drives up a ramp and is launched into the air, flying over the beach. The scene then cuts to a woman in a long red dress standing next to a silver vintage car on a rotating platform. The text "Our big job is to hasten obsolescence. In 1934 the average car ownership span was 5 years. Now [1955] it is 2 years. When it is 1 year, we will have a perfect score." is superimposed on the screen. The woman gestures dramatically as the car rotates. The scene then cuts to a man and a woman in a convertible, driving with the top down. The woman is smiling and waving, while the man is driving. The background is a blue sky with pink balloons.
"The goal wasn't just to make Ford's Model T look outdated, but to make their own cars feel outdated every year, encouraging customers to trade in their old cars for shiny new ones. Years later, GM's head of design, Harley Earl, candidly discussed his role in creating what he called dynamic obsolescence. "Our big job is to hasten obsolescence." In 1934, the average car ownership span was 5 years. Now [1955], it is 2 years. When it is 1 year, we will have a perfect score."
A man and a woman are in a convertible, driving with the top down. The woman is smiling and waving, while the man is driving. The background is a blue sky with pink balloons. The scene then cuts to a black and white archival footage of a tall, ornate building with a clock tower, labeled "GENERAL MOTORS BUILDING." An American flag flies from the top of the building. The camera pans upwards, showcasing the grandeur of the building.
"By the time he said this, General Motors was the most valuable company in the world, and it sold half of all vehicles purchased in the US every year."
The man, in a dark grey t-shirt, stands in front of the wall of light bulbs. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, connecting the historical examples of planned obsolescence to modern companies like Apple. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"These days, the world's most valuable company, Apple, seems to have copied directly out of this playbook. I mean, new styles every year, check. New special colors every year, check. Marginal technological improvement, check."
The man continues to speak, but his head is replaced by a brown poop emoji with wide eyes and a smile. The emoji head shakes slightly as he speaks, adding a humorous and critical tone to his question. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs.
"I mean, is this useful innovation or just a gimmick?"
The man's head is back to normal, and he continues to speak, gesturing with his hands. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs. The scene then cuts to an animated diagram showing four identical grey dresses. A transparent outline of a woman appears over the first dress, then over the third dress, suggesting different ways to style the same garment. The background is a light beige.
"The inspiration for General Motors, and hence for Apple, comes from fashion, where real innovation is all but impossible. So, the only way to make people feel the urgency to get out there and buy is to create styles that last but one season."
The man continues to speak, gesturing with his hands. The background remains the same, with rows of glowing light bulbs. The scene then cuts to an animated diagram showing four identical grey dresses. A transparent outline of a woman appears over the first dress, then over the third dress, suggesting different ways to style the same garment. The background is a light beige. The scene then cuts to a hand holding an original iPhone, scrolling through apps. The camera then cuts to a hand holding a silver iPhone 5, rotating it to show its squared-off edges. The scene then cuts to a hand holding a black iPhone 11, rotating it to show its rounded edges. The scene then cuts to a hand holding a gold iPhone 12 Pro, rotating it to show its squared-off edges. The phone is connected to a white MagSafe charger on a wooden table.
"The trouble then is, you run through these styles too quickly, and then what are you supposed to do? Well, just recycle the styles from a few decades ago. The iPhone also shows this recycling trend."
A hand holds a gold iPhone 12 Pro, rotating it to show its squared-off edges. The phone is connected to a white MagSafe charger on a wooden table. The scene then cuts to the man, in a dark grey t-shirt, standing in front of the wall of light bulbs. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, emphasizing the cyclical nature of design trends and how it drives consumer behavior. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"I mean, just look at the way the edges were initially rounded, and then they were squared off, and then they were rounded again, and now they're squared off. And how much do you want to bet that the iPhone 14 has rounded edges? I think the point is that with design and styling, there is no best. There's only different, which is apparently enough to remind us that we don't have the latest and greatest, and so we have to rush out and keep buying."
The man, in a dark grey t-shirt, stands in front of the wall of light bulbs, looking up and gesturing towards the ceiling. He then reaches up and removes an incandescent light bulb from the shelf, holding it in his hand. He then replaces the incandescent bulb with a compact fluorescent bulb, then with an LED bulb. He looks up at the LED bulb, admiring its brightness. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop.
"The only type of obsolescence we should support is technological, which brings us back to the light bulb. You know, in the last 20 years, light bulbs have gone from incandescent, which was basically unchanged for 100 years, to compact fluorescent, and now to LED. These use just a tenth the energy and can last anywhere from 10 to 50 times longer."
The man, in a dark grey t-shirt, stands in front of the wall of light bulbs, looking up and gesturing towards the ceiling. He then looks at the camera, smiling, and then looks back up at the light bulbs. The background is filled with glowing light bulbs and tangled wires, creating a warm, illuminated backdrop. The scene then cuts to a split screen: the top half shows the man looking up at the light bulbs, and the bottom half shows the man looking at the camera. The background is a blue, digital landscape with stars. The Veritasium logo appears in the center of the screen, with the text "Veritasium an element of truth."
"So, you're more likely to sell your house than to have to replace an LED bulb that you've installed inside it. So, we've finally reached the point of what is essentially an everlasting light bulb."
The man, in a black t-shirt, sits at a desk with a laptop in front of him. He gestures with his hands as he speaks, introducing the sponsor NordVPN. The background is a white wall with framed insect specimens, a microscope, and a globe. The Veritasium logo and the NordVPN logo appear on either side of him. The scene then cuts to a wide shot of a TV studio set, with five people sitting around a circular table. Large screens display images of the man from the video. The scene then cuts back to the man at his desk, speaking about NordVPN.
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